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Electrification (Batteries)

Zero Carbon Fuel Monitor

What is electrification?

Batteries on ships allow stored electrical energy to be used for propulsion and other onboard systems. Several different types of battery technology (materials and construction) exist and can be selected depending on which type is best suited for the specific shipping application, considering factors such as the ship's size, power requirements, range and operational profile.

To be considered a truly zero carbon solution, batteries must be charged using electricity from renewable energy sources, and could be used as a 100% battery solution or as part of a hybrid system with a zero (or near zero) carbon fuel. In practice, the ship operator, when connecting to a shore charging facility, is generally not aware of where the energy comes from, as typically the land based electric power system is interconnected and contributions come from various sources.

Example battery technologies: Lithium-ion batteries, Sodium-ion batteries, Redox Flow batteries, Nickel Cadmium batteries and Advanced lead-acid batteries.

Advantages and disadvantages of electrification

Advantages
Disadvantages

Zero emission: Fully battery-powered ships produce zero direct emissions of GHGs and harmful pollutants during operation.
Noise reduction: Electric propulsion systems powered by batteries are significantly quieter than traditional engines, reducing noise pollution in marine environments.
Operational flexibility: batteries can provide quick and precise power adjustments for better control and manoeuvrability, and can provide power to smooth peak loads in the ship network.
Energy efficiency: Fewer energy conversions are required than when using fuel, and therefore fewer energy losses. Additionally, electric motors are more efficient than combustion engines.

Limited range: the relatively low energy density of current battery technologies compared to ships using liquid fuels limits the operational profiles of a fully battery powered ship. The use of batteries in hybrid power systems (i.e. in combination with other higher energy density technologies) increases potential applications.
Recharge time and infrastructure requirements: recharging batteries takes longer than conventional refuelling of ships, impacting scheduling and operational efficiencies, and also requires significant port energy infrastructure to support this (particularly fast recharging).
Environmental and social impacts: the materials used in batteries must be sustainably sourced, and the supply chain of materials is under focus in respect of human rights violations in mining activities. At the end of their life, responsible recycling is required to limit environmental impacts and ensure effective recovery of scarce raw materials.
Thermal runaway risk: Lithium-ion batteries present a risk of uncontrolled exothermic chemical reactions which needs to be mitigated and crew need to specialised training.

There is currently a lack of standardisation of battery and charging requirements for safety and interoperability between different ships and ports. Work is ongoing by IACS and other working groups to achieve the required standardisation for a safe and efficient scale-up.

Standardisation challenges

Fully electric vessels are typically small vessels, mostly ferries, operating in inland waterways, because the current technologies support these operational profiles and the point to point nature of their routes supports development of the required recharging infrastructure. Additionally, governmental incentives (e.g. funding and requirements in procurement processes) are driving investment in these vessels and infrastructure at regional level.

Investment trends

There needs to be greater transparency of social impacts and supply chain sustainability of the raw materials used in batteries. Increasing the application of circularity principles (recovering scarce raw materials from recycled batteries and production) can reduce mining of limited raw materials.

Sustainability of raw material sourcing

There is currently limited port infrastructure for fast charging and containerised swappable battery solutions. Due to lack of standardisation, existing charging stations in ports are currently customised to specific projects - typically for use by vessels travelling on point to point routes. Swappable containerised battery solutions are in operation at a customised level, tailored on specific vessels and not yet standardised.

Charging infrastructure

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At a glance

Resources	Production	Bunkering and ports	Handling and storage onboard	Ship power systems (propulsion & power distribution)
Renewable energy and supply chain of raw materials used in batteries (lithium, manganese, cobalt, copper etc.). This includes the mining and tranforming activities to turn raw materials into pure materials that can be used in battery production.	Cells production, battery modules and systems production.	Recharging facilities, port energy infrastructure (facilities for swappable containerised battery solutions and charging)	Storage and onboard measures (incl. crew training)	Converting equipment (drivers), DC power systems

The readiness level view shows Technology on a scale from 1 (lowest) to 9 (highest), and both Investment and Community on a scale from 1 (lowest) to 6 (highest). In the supply chain view all figures are displayed on a percentage basis to allow like for like comparison, against a scale in 10% increments.

We would like to thank the Maritime Battery Forum for their contribution to this Electrification assessment.

Electrification

Electrification data insights

Technology Readiness Levels (TRL)
Investment Readiness Levels (IRL)
Community Readiness Levels (CRL)

Technology	Rating	Description	Justification	Challenge
Resource	8	Manufacturing fully tested, validated and qualified	There is a well-established supply chain for mining of raw materials. However, scale up of both renewable energy for charging infrastructure and raw materials sourcing are required to meet existing demand as well as an anticipated increased demand in shipping. Where supply of some raw materials could become difficult, other options are being explored (e.g. using sodium ion as a potential alternative for lithium ion). Recycling technologies are advancing and being deployed to reduce the need for new raw materials. Most recycling facilities are in China, often co-located with production facilities to recycle both production scrap and used batteries.	Renewable energy: There is a need to establish a robust supply chain and workforce to provide renewable electricity for decarbonizing port facilities where ships charge batteries. Government investment will be essential for this scale-up. Raw materials: raw material sourcing is affected by limited quantities of some specific materials. Scale-up of materials availability is required, including recycling technologies that are still under development.
Production	8	Manufacturing fully tested, validated and qualified	Different chemistries and constructions of batteries exist at varying levels of technology readiness, however the most widely used batteries (e.g., lithium-ion) are already mass produced and widely used across marine as well as other sectors. Standardisation of requirements for batteries (including containerised solutions) for marine use are currently in development. IACS is studying the risks and seeking agreement on unified requirements and safety measures for Li-ion batteries with a target completion date of October 2025. An IEC working group is collaborating in a standard, expanding requirements to incorport marine applications, and aiming for an international standard. The market is evolving with different standards on different routes (regional) until standardisation is achieved.	Raw materials used in the most widely used battery (i.e. Lithium Ion Battery) technologies are scarce so technologies using a variety of chemistries are being considered and in some cases under development. Standardisation of batteries (including containerised battery solutions) for the marine application is required to enable safe and efficient adoption of batteries. This work is still in progress with both IACS and IEC working towards the development of unique technical standards. Innovations in battery technology, such as higher energy densities, lighter weight and faster charging times could make fully electric ships more viable for a broader range of marine applications. .
Recharging and ports	7	Low scale pilot production demonstrated	Onshore power connections already exist with mature technology. Due to lack of standardisation, existing charging stations in ports are currently customised to specific projects - typically for use by vessels travelling on point to point routes. Swappable containerised battery solutions are in operation at a customised level, tailored on specific vessels and not yet standardised. A standard for charging connections is still in development by IEC, ISO and IEEE Joint Working Groups. The CharIN Megawatt Charing System (MCS) standard exists specifically for high-power charging of larger electric vehicles. The connection points need significant scaling-up in terms of available power to meet demand for batteries used for ship's propulsion and contemporaneus charging of several electrified ships.	Development and scaling of infrastructure for connecting, charging and fast charging in ports is needed to meet shipping GW demands in a practical time period. Fast recharging demands dedicated infrastructure and connections, whereas trickle recharging takes too long for many shipowners to consider a viable option (depending on the ship type and operation profile). The local grid infrastructure will need to be scaled up accordingly, or alternative solutions (such as land based batteries at ports) need to be explored. An example of a land based battery is the Shell-developed dual-use megawatt charger pilot in Amsterdam, which can be used by shipping vessels and electric trucks. Ports will need to develop infrastructure for loading/unloading moving and charging swappable containerised batteries. Connecting procedures need to be developed taking into account safety issues.
Ship - Onboard handling and storage	7	Low scale pilot production demonstrated	Battery technology is proven and in use on small regional vessels and inland waterways in fully battery powered solutions as well as hybrid (e.g. with hydrogen). There are also ~18 ocean vessels using batteries in hybrid systems with HFO and LNG (therefore not yet as part of a zero carbon solution). These are mostly ro-ro vessels, bulk carriers, tankers and containerships and the majority of these are hybrid (charged on generators) rather than plug in solutions. The battery technologies available at present have a limited energy density that cannot be considered for ocean voyages (in terms of convenient remaining volume available for cargo) as a fully battery powered solution.	Offshore charging infrastructures could potentially be engineered and introduced into maritime operations to alleviate the challenge of using batteries only power for ocean voyages, since current battery technologies available have a limited energy density. Electrical energy storage systems (EESS) with much higher energy density may also be developed to allow engineering of cargo ships with limited volume dedicated to them, although solutions will be a trade-off in terms of energy density, cost and battery lifetime.
Ship - Propulsion	9	Production and product fully operational	Electric drive train systems are mature and well understood.	N/A

Investment	Rating	Description	Justification	Challenge
Resource	3	Commercial scale up	Renewable energy: Small scale commercial trials exist but scale up is still in the planning phase Raw materials: Raw material mining for battery production is widespread, with about 95% sourced from mining. Recycling facility investment is limited, mainly in China, where demand is higher due to the electric vehicle market. These facilities often recycle both production scrap and used batteries.	Renewable energy: There is a need to mitigate the risks of investing in countries with low credit ratings, which are often well-suited for providing renewable resources. Raw materials: A global increase in demand for recycling facilities is necessary for scaling up infrastructure. Investments in recycling are likely to be regional, depending on the availability of used batteries and proximity to production facilities. .
Production	4	Multiple commercial applications	Investment in battery production is happening at a large scale, however only a small fraction of this is for shipping and since supply of batteries for all sectors is struggling to meet demand, prices are increasing. Battery producers are also considering alternative business models such as providing energy as a services rather than selling batteries (e.g. through swappable containerised battery solutions). .	Standardisation is required to remove added complexities and costs in production of tailored solutions to meet varying requirements. The potential shift to selling energy as a service (rather than selling batteries) raises questions on the legal aspects with respect to battery ownership, particularly whether this can be disconnected from ship ownership.
Recharging and ports	2	Commercial trial, small scale	Some ports are already equipped with onshore power supply facilities (so called 'cold ironing') but they are used for ship's loads, to enable stopping of diesel generators when the ship is berthed. Other ports have power connections for charging batteries on small, local vessels. Governmental investments are mainly focussed on onshore power supply for cold ironing. Charger utilisation rates drive the business case for charging infrastructure development, therefore the case is stronger for vessel types with a predictable operating profile such as ferries and offshore support vessels which return to the same ports.	Standardisation in requirements and development of demand profiles in shipping is needed to stimulate investment in the scale-up of port infrastructure - this for both infrastructure for swappable containerised battery solutions and adequate fast charging infrastructure.
Ship - onboard handling and storage	2	Commercial trial, small scale	When it comes to fully battery powered vessels, the investment readiness varies by ship type. For example. inland waterway applications would achieve a higher IRL than ocean applications as several cases are already in operation. The operating profiles of regionally operating vessels such as ferries and offshore support vessels are very convenient for battery applications and as such are attracting investments. Government incentives of funding and requirements in procurement processes are driving investment, particularly for small regional vessels (e.g. in Norway). There are high up-front costs of installing battery technology, however lower operating costs of using batteries. Fluctuating costs of energy prove a challenge in developing investment cases for battery technologies.	Lack of sufficient charging infrastructure in ports means that using batteries onboard can add operational costs due to time spent recharging in ports, and the space required to store batteries for long voyages limits cargo carrying capacity, due to their low energy density. A robust investment case for different applications (ship type and operating model) needs to be developed, considering the different battery technology solutions and models available (e.g. containerised battery solutions using ""energy as a service"" model). The cost of electric energy is highly fluctuating among countries and time and this can be a challenge for the investment decision making.

Community	Rating	Description	Justification	Challenge
Resource	4	Evidence becoming widespread resulting in initial stakeholder acceptance	Renewable energy: Small scale solutions show some acceptance at a local level, however scaling renewable electricity requires community acceptance around potential environmental and social impacts Raw materials: there are ethical concerns around the sustainable sourcing of scarce raw materials for batteries (e.g., lithium, cobalt, manganese). Additionally, battery recycling to recover raw materials is limited. Starting in 2027, the EU Battery Directive will introduce a “battery passport” for batteries over 2 kWh to ensure sustainable sourcing, production, and end-of-life processing.	Renewable energy: Communities need educating on the wider benefits of renewable energy and to dedicate land use for these purposes. Raw materials: There needs to be more transparency about the social and environmental impacts of material sourcing and supply chain sustainability to gain community acceptance. The application of circularity principles should increase, enhancing the recovery of raw materials from recycled batteries and reducing the need for mining. Consideration must also be given to the location of recycling facilities to minimise the transport and associated emissions of used batteries.
Production	4	Evidence becoming wide-spread resulting in initial stakeholder acceptance	Generally communities are supportive of battery production where renewable energy will be used for charging, although there are ethical concerns around the scarcity of raw materials. From 2027, the EU Battery Directive will introduce a "battery passport" for all batteries over 2 kWh to ensure sustainable sourcing, production, and end-of-life processes.	Circularity principles should be more widely adopted to increase recovery of raw materials from recycled batteries, thereby reducing the need for new mining activities for raw materials..
Recharging and ports	2	Stakeholder support or opposition is becoming understood as a result of pilots	Improved air quality around ports strengthens community support for electrification. However, there are potential community impacts from increased local energy demand. These impacts may be reduced by using containerised battery solutions that can be trickle charged rather than fast charged, however in that case, more batteries would be need to be available for swapping.	Local port energy infrastructure needs to be assessed, and where necessary upgraded to ensure it is adequate to meet demand of the local region as well as port operations (including charging). Evidence that renewable energy is used for charging is needed (e.g. using power purchase agreements, on-site renewable energy generation).
Ship - onboard handling and storage	2	Stakeholder support or opposition is becoming understood as a result of pilots	Community acceptance of battery use as a zero carbon solution is subject to the electricity for recharging coming from renewable sources, and responsible recycling of batteries. There are safety concerns around thermal runaway resulting in fires (lithium-ion batteries only) from previous incidents. Rules already exist for the safe integration of batteries and safety-critical functionality required. IMO regulations for batteries exist in SOLAS (setting minimum safety standards including crew competence and safe management) and MEPC guidelines (pollution prevention, including regulations on the disposal and recycling of batteries). IEC standards include requirements for installation of batteries on ships.	Evidence that renewable energy is used for charging is needed for lifecycle analysis of the solutions. There is a crew training challenge - this training is required for safe operation of batteries on board vessels, however is lagging battery adoption.